Sniffy the Virtual Rat

Sniffy the Virtual Rat Introduction Scholars dealing with human and animal behavior have come up with different theories to explain how behavior is acquired or how it becomes extinct. Such scholars include BF Skinner, who advanced operant conditioning theory and Ivan Pavlov, who advanced classical conditioning theory. In this paper, classical and operant conditioning experiments shall be designed. The significance of the experiments and how they relate to human behavior and thinking shall be explained.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Sniffy the Virtual Rat specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Classical conditioning This is a behavioral learning theory advanced by Ivan Pavlov. In classical conditioning, learning takes place as a result of pairing a natural stimulus together with an environmental stimulus (Hall, 1998). In order for learning to take place, a neutral stimulus is placed before a natural stimulus. According to Cherry (2012) , behavior is learnt through association of the two stimuli. A visit to the dentist experiment Miss Y has cavities on most of her teeth. It is not the first time for her to have such a problem. In the past, she has been to the dentist and had some of the teeth with cavities extracted. The first time, she found a female doctor who extracted the tooth but she felt no pain. The second time, she found a male dentist who extracted the decayed tooth. However, the experience was not the same as the one she had during her first extraction. The male dentist extracted the tooth in a way that caused her a lot of pain. During the second time when she felt a lot of pain, Miss Y noted some of the characteristics of the dentist who performed the operation. The male dentist was wearing a white apron, had spectacles on and was from a different racial group (race A). During her subsequent visit to the dentist to have another tooth extracted, Miss Y finds another dentist that she has never met. Howeve r, the dentist is a man, wearing a white apron, with spectacles on and from race A. Before even explaining her problem to this dentist, Miss Y starts shaking due to fear. She starts feeling a lot of pain on her tooth that has not been aching while she was coming to the dentist. Miss Y is behaving in this manner because she has learnt to associate pain during teeth extraction with male dentist of a certain race. Miss Y decides to check another dentist to extract the tooth. Her next stop lands her to a lady dentist. Miss Y is now relaxed and ready to go through the process of extraction. She associates the experience is expecting to have with the past painless procedure that she underwent when the extraction was done by a lady. For the rest of the times that she visits a dentist, Miss Y requests to have a lady dentist work on her. Consequently, she claims that the extraction is always painless.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More After Miss Y has had her dental problems dealt with, she does not feel the need to continue visiting the dentist as regularly as she did. However, whenever she goes to the hospital and finds a male doctor from race A, she is gripped by intense fear and starts feeling pain in her body. On the contrary, whenever she goes to the hospital and finds a lady doctor, she is more relaxed and less fearful. She says that she feels little or no pain at all when she is treated by a lady doctor. Miss Y is conditioned that all male doctors from race A inflict pain upon their patient during treatment. On the other hand, all female doctors treat their patients with less pain. Therefore, whenever Miss Y sees a male doctor from race A, even when she does not need his services, she is filled with fear. Baby and mother experiment Another example of classical conditioning can be illustrated through a mother’s relationship with her young child. When the child is with the mother, it is naturally quiet and at times jovial. However, when the mother carries her handbag and is about to leave for work, the baby starts to cry. Every time the baby sees the mother carry her handbag, it starts to cry because it is aware that the mother is about to leave. This happens after the mother repeatedly leaves for work whenever she carries her handbag. The baby therefore associates the handbag with being left behind by the mother. After continuously pairing the handbag with the mother’s departure, the baby starts to cry whenever she sees a handbag, even when the mother is not leaving. The mother in this case is the neutral stimulus, leaving the baby behind is the unconditioned stimulus, crying the unconditioned response, the mother the conditioned stimulus and crying the conditioned response. The baby’s association of the handbag with being left behind results to generalization. In this case, the baby cries whenever the mother carries anything else that looks like a bag, even when she is not leaving. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning was first proposed by Burrhus Frederic Skinner commonly known as BF Skinner (Mcleod, 2007). Skinner drew a lot from Thorndike’s work. The most important components of operant conditioning are reinforcement, rewards and punishment. If one reinforces a certain behavior, there is likelihood for the behavior to be exhibited again. However, if behavior is not reinforced, it will most probably be weakened and eventually become extinct. Reinforcement Positive reinforcement can be demonstrated through the use of a hungry dog placed in a special box. The box has a lever that is strategically placed at the side. The rat is able to move freely inside the box. However, during some of its movement, the rat accidentally steps on the lever at the side of the box. When this happens, the rat notices a food pellet near the lever it has stepped on. The rat learns that pres sing the lever is rewarded by provision of food.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Sniffy the Virtual Rat specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Therefore, the rat continues pressing the lever as many times as possible and the outcome is still the same. In this case, the behavior of pressing the lever is reinforced because it results to something desirable. Therefore, the rat continues to press the lever every time it needs something to eat. This is an example of positive reinforcement, which strengthens a given behavior and increases its chance of recurrence. Behavior is reinforced through rewarding one’s behavior with a desirable consequence. The behavior is likely to be repeated in future if a desirable consequence is provided. Negative reinforcement According to Mcleod (2007), another way of strengthening behavior is the use of negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcement is applicable to the rat in th e box experiment that we used for positive reinforcement. To introduce negative reinforcement, one would expose the rat to something that is not pleasant, for example an electric current. The lever should be set such that the electric current switches off immediately it is pressed by the rat. Therefore, the rat would learn that pressing the lever provided a way of escape from the unpleasant electric current that it is subjected to. Every time the electric current is switched on in the box, the rat will have a tendency to move to where the lever is and press it in order to escape the unpleasant conditions in the box. The action is repeated over and over again because the rat has learnt how to escape the discomfort caused by the electric current. Punishment Punishment is meant to cause a response to be weak or to make it extinct as opposed to reinforcement that is meant to increase the probability of occurrence of a behavior. There are two ways that can be used to issue out punishment . The first involves application of an unpleasant stimulus after something wrong has been done. The other one is denial of a rewarding stimulus whenever an undesired behavior is exhibited. Punishment is very similar to negative reinforcement. This type of conditioning can be used to encourage positive behavior in both animals and human beings. It can also be used to discourage negative behavior in humans and animals. Behavior learnt through operant conditioning is easily stopped when the consequences that were encouraging its occurrence are withdrawn. This is what is called extinction. These experiments enhance the classical conditioning theory advanced by Ivan Pavlov and operant conditioning advanced by Burrhus Frederic Skinner. They show that some behavior that human beings exhibit have been acquired through association of a natural stimulus with the environment as in classical conditioning.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Other behaviors are become permanent or extinct due to positive or negative reinforcement and punishment, as proposed by operant conditioning theory. The theories are applicable in day to day life in both humans and animals. Conclusion The experiments support the two theories of behavior acquisition namely: classical and operant conditioning. The animal experiments conducted by BF Skinner and Ivan Pavlov relate very closely to human thinking and behavior. Reference List Cherry, K. (2012). The Little Albert Experiment: A Closer Look at the Famous Case of Little Albert. New York: About.com. Web. Hall, R. (1998). Classical Conditioning. Web. Mcleod, S. (2007). Skinner Operant Conditioning. London: Psychology Press. Web.

Comprehensive Study Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 6000 words

Comprehensive Study Project - Essay Example Consequently, a wealth of literature exists on the benefits and risks of improving sustainability, and the decisive responsibility of facilities management to influence balance between ecological preservation, social equity and contributing positively to the economy. But because facilities management is an expansive interrelation of phases from construction into dilapidation, opportunities of sustainability are plenty. Benefits of sustainable facilities management present in reduced water consumption, energy use and fewer emissions that contribute to climate change. Optimization of resource consumption and increased value opens the plethora of social, ecological, and financial benefits. The application of sustainability in buildings enhances in value by 8-10 times the operational savings as presented in the journals of Cooper (2002), : A management tool for occupant fit out "comprises of core components to define the aims and objectives for the research paper of Technology, Engineering and the Environment. The terms of reference for analyzing the relationship between Sustainability and Facilities management for Occupant fit out: This research focuses on critical success factors and its effectiveness on the facilities management of the organizations. Deductive approach assists in designing the research framework based on literature review and existing theory to derive a conclusion. TThe research design enables researchers to find solutions to research problems through passing the various phases of research - collecting, analysing and interpreting observations (Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996). The research design needs to address data collection process. The correct understanding of the research problem is necessary for finding the required solutions (Ghauri, Grnhaug and Kristianslund, 1995). Research can follow the three approaches from exploratory, descriptive and causal methods. Exploratory research explores the boundaries of the environment with respect to the problems, opportunities or situations of concern for identifying related and relevant variables to the research project (Talaq, 2004). Descriptive research also provides a correct and valid representation of the selected variables from exploratory research. Causal research approach is instrumental in establishing causal link between these variables (Talaq, 2004). For the purpose of

Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 17

Ethics - Essay Example Severance packages or early retirement options as a method of reducing payroll costs can have severe consequences on the organization, especially in terms of motivation to work to business expectations. Even though the package was tempting to the exiting employee and they decided to take it, there are members of the organization who have worked with these exiting colleagues each and every workday. Socialization is bound to be impacted, in relation to the employees’ sense of belonging in the organization, creating difficulty in adjustment for the remaining workers. The HR manager is often the person who develops and offers these early retirement plans, under pressure at the highest levels, and they must also balance their regular job role as the employee champion responsible for issues of motivation and performance. Sudden drops in employee volume, due to the need to cut payroll costs, can over-burden the workers with consolidated jobs roles and create rifts where positive soci alization used to exist. â€Å"Layoffs can send shock waves through a local economy when a company that downsizes is large and when several firms choose to downsize at the same time, in the same region† (Piturro, 1999, p.39). These shock waves can be measured by the higher levels of unemployment in the local area, along with less-quality consumer lifestyles caused by income reductions, as well as loss of commerce at multiple levels, consumer and business-to-business. Early retirement packages are attempts at avoiding situations where local economies suffer, where employees are given incentives to take the option (as far as satisfying their emotional needs), and to improve the company’s bottom line. This is a major benefit, rather than the disadvantages which were discussed earlier, because it reduces the shock waves which often occur when

Use of database Essay Example for Free

Use of database Essay Computer technology has given many precious gifts to mankind. One of them is the database technology. It has made administration, trade and commerce very easy, precise and fast. Operations which used to take long time, and were still full of errors, are now managed in few seconds, and are cent percent free of errors. At the heart of this remarkable success is the software program, which helps creation, segmentation , categorization and retrieval of databases. These programs are known as database management systems, DBMS programs have a long history. Starting from very simple programs in 1960s they have developed into large, complex software packages like Oracle. While the management functions remain the same, the utility value and the facilities offered in newer versions differ vastly from their predecessors. This essay briefly analyzes the DBMS program used in a particular department of an organization and proposes hoe improvements could be made over the existing use of DBMS program. The organization is a market research agency. One of the departments is pharmaceutical research. The function of this department is to gather prescriptions of doctors from various geographic locations across the country, analyze the symptoms, diagnosis and the drugs prescribed by the Doctor. These prescriptions are codified according to standardized international codes. Based on this coding, a generalized report is then prepared, which specifies which drug is used more in a given geographic location. This market research is very important to pharmaceutical companies for devising their marketing strategies. Here, the database program used for coding the symptoms, diagnosis and drugs is taken as an example for analysis. First, the function of coding is explained with an example. Visits a doctor with a complaint of soar throat and difficulty in swallowing, coupled with fever. According to the directory of codes of symptoms of the company, symptom ‘soar throat’ has a code 3323, ‘difficulty in swallowing’ has a code 1018 and ‘fever’ has a code 1286. If the doctor diagonizes ‘ throat infection’ as the cause for these symptoms, the code for it, as specified by WHO is J029. (ICD-10). Now, the doctor prescribes ‘ MOX-500’ capsules, a drug which has Amoxycillin as its main content. The code of this drug is 05377-73, as per the company specification. Those who do this coding job have to frequently refer to each code. The sum total of symptoms, diagnosis and drugs runs into a few thousand entries. Manual reference to these codes is very cumbersome. A database management program is designed to aids the coders. The package used is Foxpro. It is a two way system, wherein, the code could be traced if the name is given as an input and the name is given as an output if the number is given as an input. So, the coder can trace the code from any name and conversely, the name can also be traced with the help of a numeric code. Like all the DOS based programs, this program is a very robust program, and easy to use. Name to Number program : This program contains all the data related to the symptoms, diagnosis and the drugs. While the name and its respective code are the main parameters displayed, the drug table also reveals the type of drug e. g. syrup. Tablet, capsule, injection etc and its respective capacities e. g. 5 ml, 200mg etc. Being a DOS based program, the database is indexed by the computer, each time it is accessed. The key command for a new entry are ‘ ‘alt-s’ keys on the keyboard. Even if the full name is not types, the program takes to the alphabetically ordered names of the data. For example, if only ‘ ‘soar’ is typed as a new entry, the program gives and output of the first entry, out of all the entries starting from alphabets ‘soar’, or just typing ‘ pen’ will take the user to the first entry alphabetically listed with ‘pen’ as the first three letters. The cursor needs to be taken down to locate the drug ‘penicillin’. Instructions regarding the keyboard controls for retrieval of information, traverse of the cursor and exit from the program are permanently displayed at the bottom of the screen. These are the read only features. This means only three operations are possible on the program by the coder. Either he can type a name and get the code, or he can traverse the cursor or he can exit. It bears typical resemblance to the ‘ WordStar’ program, where the controls for operations were displayed whenever the program used to start. It is a completely textual program, simply because the basic software package, Foxpro/ Dos version, did not offer any GUI facilities. Like all other DOS based programs, colors are non existent in this program. It is a black and white screen throughout its use. Number name program : Many times the coder need a reverse retrieval to be performed. That is, given a number, the corresponding name of the symptom, diagnosis and the drug is to be traced. This program offers this facility also. When the number is entered, its validity is checked and if it is a correct number corresponding to the database, then the name of the drug, diagnosis or the symptom is given out as an output. In the case of drug display, the other parameters like the type e. g. syrup, tablet, capsule etc are also displayed. This part also has all the features and limitations typically associated with a DOS based program. This program, even in its present form, based on the technology of early 1990s is extremely useful to the coders. Especially when it comes to coding few hundred prescriptions every day, this program helps in a speedy and precise coding procedure. The codes are written manually by the coder on a printed form on paper. Improvements: Several improvements are not only possible on the current system but it is a necessary demand of time. First, Windows – 98 is soon expiring as the last GUI operating system which can support DOS based applications. The next most popular OS, Windows-XP does not support DOS based applications. Even the new and latest processors like the Dual Core by Pentium and motherboards, do not support Windows-98. Hence, technically, it will be impossible to run this program, the latest computers. It is the demand of time, that a Windows based DBMS used. This can be MS Access, Foxpro/ Win, or Oracle, but a switch over to GUI based application development is a must. Second, the codes, after being retrieved, are written manually. A new application needs to be developed, wherein the need to write the codes separately on a different sheet is eliminated. The coder inserts the name of the symptom, diagnosis or the drug and the corresponding number of the code should be automatically entered in the blank format of the form. The concept of relational database comes into picture over here. The database needs to be related to many blank forms, in such a way that a new form comes on the screen no sooner one is over. As soon as the name is typed in the form, the code must be retrieved by the software and entered in the form. The third factor is to add the utility value of the program. The same program can be extended to keep a record of the name of the coder who has accessed this program and the amount of work done by him/her. This feature facilitates speedy calculation of the monetary remuneration to be given to the coder. A record of signing in time and sign out time will also tell how much time the coder has put in. This record would be useful to gauge the efficiency of the coder. Seeing to the requirements of the improved version, a switch over to Oracle is more desirable, for the versatility and flexibility it offers. One more issue arises out of this discussion. Is the development in computers heading in the right direction? Despite all the progress in the software industry, no program has been able to replace the ‘ command. com’ file of DOS. All versions of Windows also rely upon DOS for their booting functions. Similarly, coders do not have any problem with the program they are working at present, which is over a decade old. The basic question is: Is all the development necessary? Or is it that needs are first created and then devices are made to suffice them? Or is it that under the umbrella of ‘user friendly’ Bill Gates has prevented people from getting to know the inner aspects of a computer? A calculator was a good invention, but has it always helped mankind? Has it not put limitations on the mental calculating capacities? Our ancestors had no problems in adding 40 numbers , fast and precise. For the present generation it is impossible. The developments in computers, have reduced the computer, a PC, to a mere entertainment tool, and the internet has become a tool for chat and social networking for a vast majority of users. Any development is real only if it helps in sharpening of minds, not rusting it !!!

Process of Learning Essay -- Education Essays Observational Cognitive

There are many ways that children and adults learn but there are two processes of learning which have been of great debate for many years. Observational learning and cognitive learning have been theories which many great philosophers have been researching extensively. Both theories provide valid points and both can be applied to our world today. The question is do I believe in them and can they somehow be integrated? I believe that learning is observable yet I also recognize that there are many other factors to consider when discussing this issue. First I believe that being observant means that we focus and pay attention to what we are observing. If you want to learn anything, it is critical to pay attention. Anything that may come in the way of your attention is going to decrease your learning, including observational learning. Second I believe that each individual's environment, culture, and family greatly affect how someone responds to what they have observed. We can look at this topic from a simplistic point of view and use the example of a child observing someone throw...

The Rocking Horse Winner vs the Destructor

â€Å"The Rocking Horse Winner† by DH Lawrence and â€Å"The Destructors† by Graham Greene were both written post wars where poverty was abundant. These two fiction stories are written about the evil caused by materialism. Comparing the two short stories, we find that greed causes destruction. In both stories, the protagonist is a boy not yet grown. Lawrence creates a boy, Paul, who strives to change the luck of not only himself, but that of his entire family. Greene tells of a boy, T, who leads a gang into destructing the home of a wealthy man just because it still stands where others around it were destroyed by bombs from the war. This leads to the obvious contrast that one boy is attempting the acquisition of material goods while the other is attempting the destruction of material goods. Still it remains that in both cases, greed causes destruction of great value. Similarly in both stories, the boy’s mothers could be seen as the antagonist because they both are very materialistic and impress on the children the need to be seen as better than others. Lawrence describes Paul’s mother, â€Å"felt themselves superior to anyone in their neighborhood† and Greene describes T’s mother, â€Å"considered herself better than the neighbors†. The Rocking Horse Winner† is set in London soon after World War I. â€Å"The Destructor† was set after World War II in a place where just about everything had been destroyed by bombs. Both stories are told in the third person narrative. And both stories end up with the same theme: greed and materialism. â€Å"The Rocking Horse Winnerâ €  begins by describing Paul’s mother, â€Å" There was a woman who was beautiful, who started with all the advantages, yet she had no luck. † She obviously became a very bitter and jealous person unable to love even her children. Because of her greed and belief that more money was always needed, the house became haunted and was constantly chanting, â€Å"There must be more money. † In this story the house was symbolic of people’s greed and never ending desire to always have more. Paul is lead to believe that only luck can bring enough money into the old house so he sets out to find his own luck. He finds that luck by frantically riding a toy rocking horse that â€Å"takes him there† at which point he discovers the name of the horse that will win the next big race. Over time, Paul does make a lot of money gambling, but at the cost of his own life in the end. In â€Å"The Destructors†, a group of teenage boys decide to destroy the beautiful house that sat alone in the middle of a bombsite. The house was symbolic of all they, and most of the town, had lost to the war. The owner of the house had always been kind to the boys, but T didn’t trust anyone or their motives. After destroying the house, he told Mr. Thomas â€Å"There’s nothing personal. † Although the gang destroyed everything Mr. Thomas had and burnt his life’s savings, they took care to make sure Mr. Thomas was not in the house and was not hurt. So in the end, all his material belongings were gone, but he still had his life. The plot of both stories was about greed and resentment; Paul’s mothers greed for more and more and never being satisfied and T’s greed of making sure Mr. Thomas had no more than anyone else. The complication found in â€Å"The Rocking Horse Winner† was found in Paul having to frantically ride the horse at the cost of his own health in order to find the name of the next winner. In Destructors, the complication was the time it took to destroy the old house from the inside out without anyone noticing before Mr. Thomas returned from his trip. In each case, the denouement was the destruction that occurred because of greed. For Paul, no matter how lucky he was and no matter how much money he made, he never acquired what meant most to him, his mother’s love. In the end, Paul gained money and could have purchased material things, but lost his life. And in Greene’s story, even though T destroyed the home and all it’s beauty, he saved the life of Mr. Thomas. So in this case, all material things were lost, but the life was saved. These stories are in some ways very different, but both come to the same conclusion – greed destroys. Greed is like Satan, it takes and takes but is never satisfied with what it has, it always wants more. Greed only leads to destruction.

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